VITAMINS

The Vitamins are necessary auxiliaries in metabolism. They combine with specific proteins, as parts of various oxidative enzyme systems which are concerned with the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fat in the body. Thus, they are intimately involved in the mechanism which releases energy, carbon dioxide and water as the end products of metabolism.

Vitamins can be broadly divided into Fat Soluble and Water Soluble Vitamins. Vitamins A D E and K are fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamins B ( B1 B2 B6 B12 ) and C are water-soluble.

Vitamin - A
Year	1913
	Retinol
Main Metabolic Function	Essential for normal growth and development. For normal function of epithelical cells and normal development of teeth and bones. Prevents Night blindness.
Deficiency - Effects	Retarded growth. Reduced resistance to infection. Abnormal function of gastrointestinal, and respiratory tracts due to altered epithelial membranes. Interferes with production of "night purple".
Available	Milk, Egg yolk, Ghee, Butter, Carrots, Tomatoes, Leafy and Yellow vegetables, Cod liver oil and Fresh fruits.
Nature	Fat-Soluble
Year	1936
	Thiamin
Main Metabolic Function	An important aid in carbohydrate metabolism. Needed for Proper functioning of the digestive tract and nervous system. Beriberi. Loss of muscle.
Deficiency - Effects	Loss of appetite. Impaired digestion of starches and sugars. Various nervous disorder coordination.
Available	Peas, Beans and Cereals.
Nature	Water-Soluble
Vitamin - B2
Year	1935
	Riboflavin
Main Metabolic Function	Needed in formation of certain enzymes and in cellular oxidation. Prevents inflammation of oral mucous membranes and the tongue.
Deficiency - Effects	Impaired growth, lassitude and weakness. Causes cheillosis or glossittis. May result in Photophobia and cataracts.
Available	Peas, Beans and Cereals.
Nature	Water-Soluble
Vitamin - B6
Year	1934
	Pyridoxine
Main Metabolic Function	Acts as do other B vitamins. To break down protein, carbohydrate and fat. Acts as a catalyst in the formation of niacin from tryptophan.
Deficiency - Effects	Increased irritability, convulsions and peripheral neuritis. Anorexia, nausea and vomiting.
Available	Peas, Beans and Cereals.
Nature	Water-Soluble
Vitamin - B12
Year	1948
	Cyanocobalamin
Main Metabolic Function	Essential for development of red blood cells. Required for maintenance of skin, nerve tissues, bone and muscles.
Deficiency - Effects	Results in pernicious anaemia. Weakness, fatigue, sore and cracked lips.
Available	Peas, Beans and Cereals.
Nature	Water-Soluble
Vitamin - C
Year	1919
	Ascorbic Acid
Main Metabolic Function	Needed for form the cementing substance, collagen, in various tissues (skin, dentine, cartilage and bone matrix). Assists in woundhealing and bone fractures.
Deficiency - Effects	Lowered resistance to infections. Susceptibility to dental cavities, pyotthea and bleeding gums. Delayed wound healing. Specific treatment for Scurvy.
Available	Fresh vegetables, Lemon, Orange, Tomatoes, Cabbage , Turnip and Lettuce (Beetroot).
Nature	Water-Soluble
Year	1925
	Cholecalciferol
Main Metabolic Function	Requlates absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestinal tract. Affords antiachitic activity.
Deficiency - Effects	Interferes with utilisation of calcium and phosphorus in bone and teeth formation. Development of bone disease, rickets and caries.
Available	Butter, Milk, Ghee, Cod liver oil, Yolk of Eggs and also in Sunrays.
Nature	Fat-Soluble
Vitamin - E
Year	1936
	Tocopherols
Main Metabolic Function	Protects tissues, cell membranes and Vitamin A against peroxidation. Helps strengthen red blood cells.
Deficiency - Effects	Decreased red blood cell resistance to rupture.
Available	Germinating Wheat.
Nature	Fat-Soluble
Vitamin - K
Year	1935
	Phytomenadione
Main Metabolic Function	Essential for formation of normal amounts of prothrombin and blood coagulation.
Deficiency - Effects	diminished blood clotting time. Increased incidence of hemorrhages.
Available	Fish, Wheat and Oats.
Nature	Fat-Soluble

SOLAR SYSTEM

Pluto			Diameter	3,040 Kilometer
			Moons	1
			Avg.Distance to Sun	5,865.5 million KM
			Time to Orbit the Sun	248 Years
			Facts	This Planet is the farthest, the smallest, the darkest, the coldest and arguably the strangest. It follows the most elongated and tilted orbit in the solar system. Its moon, Charon, is nearly half its size - appears like a bi-planet. NASA used a new infra-red telescope, has learned that Pluto is shrouded in frozen nitrogen- not methane as once thought. Nitrogen makes 78% of the air.

Neptune			Diameter	49,000 Kilometer
			Moons	8
			Avg.Distance to Sun	4,497 million KM
			Time to Orbit the Sun	165 Years
			Facts	It is denser & little smaller than Uranus. Its Atmosphere appear blue, with quickly changing white clouds often suspended high above an apparent surface. Atmosphere constituents are mostly hydrocarbon compounds. It Emits about 2.3 times more energy than it receives from the sun and the Aurora phenomenon was noticed by Voyager II.

Uranus			Diameter	52,096 Kilometer
			Moons	17
			Avg.Distance to Sun	2,852.8 million KM
			Time to Orbit the Sun	84 Years
			Facts	Waterly Uranus is the only planet that lies on its side. One pole, than the other, faces the Sun as it orbits. Voyager-I found nine dark, compact rings around the planet and a corkscrew-shaped magnetic field that stretches millions of kilometers.

Mars			Diameter	6,755.2 Kilometer
			Moons	2
			Avg.Distance to Sun	225.6 million KM
			Time to Orbit the Sun	687 Days
			Facts	The Viking probes failed to Beneath its thin atmosphere. Mars is barren, covered with pink soil and boulders. Long ago it was active, the surface is marked with dormant volcanoes and deep chasms where water once freely flowed.

Venus			Diameter	12,032 Kilometer
			Moons	None
			Avg.Distance to Sun	107.52 million KM
			Time to Orbit the Sun	225 Days
			Facts	Earth's twin in size and mass, sparingly hot Venus is perpetually veiled behind reflective sulfuric-acid clouds. Probes and radar mapping have pierced the clouds and carbon-dioxide environment to reveal flat, rocky plains & signs of volcanic activity.

Mercury			Diameter	4,849.6 Kilometer
			Moons	None
			Avg.Distance to Sun	57.6 million KM
			Time to Orbit the Sun	88 Days
			Facts	Tiny Mercury, slightly larger than Earth's moon. Races along its elliptical orbital 1,76,000 kilometer per hour. A speed that keeps it from being drawn into the Sun's gravity field. The crated planet has no atmosphere, days are scorching hot and nights, frigid.

Earth			Diameter	12,732.2 Kilometer
			Moons	1
			Avg.Distance to Sun	148.8 million KM
			Time to Orbit the Sun	365 Days
			Facts	Uniquely moderate temperature and the presence of oxygen and copious water maker Earth the only planet in the solar system to support life.

Jupiter			Diameter	1,41,968 Kilometer
			Moons	16
			Avg.Distance to Sun	772.8 million KM
			Time to Orbit the Sun	11.9 Years
			Facts	Two Pioneer space probes photographed the Great Red Spot on the Solar system's largest planet. Voyagers I and II later showed it is an enormous eddy in the turbulent cloud cover. Earth the only planet in the solar system to support life. They also spotted dusty rings, three new moons and volcanoes on the Moon.

Saturn			Diameter	1,19,296 Kilometer
			Moons	20 or more
			Avg.Distance to Sun	1,417.6 million KM
			Time to Orbit the Sun	29.5 Years
			Facts	Voyager I found that the celebrated rings of the golden giant Saturn are composed of thousands of rippling, spiraling bands just 100 feets thick. The moon Titan has a nitrogen atmosphere and hydrocarbons.

Sun			Diameter	13,84,000 Kilometer
			Statellites	9 Planets
			Age	4.5 billion years
			Facts	A rather ordinary, middle age star, the gaseous sun may reach a temperature of 27-millon degrees Celsius at its core. Its 11 years cycle is now approaching a solar maximum, a period marked by frequent sunspots and flares. On Earth, some radio waves will be disturbed and the amazing sky streamers called Northern Lights will appear.

National Surveys and Other Institutions in India

Institution	Place
Atomic Energy Commission	Bombay
Bhabha Atomic Research Center	Trombay (Bombay)
Botanical Survey of India	Calcutta
Birbal Sahni Indtitute for Palaeobotanoy	Lucknow
Bose Research Institute	Calcutta
Indian Association for the Cultivation of science	Calcutta
Indian National Science Academy	New Delhi
Indian National Science Congress Association	Calcutta
National Atlas Organisation	Calcutta
Raman Research Institute	Bangalore
Survey of India	Dehra Dun
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Zoology	Delhi
Zoological Survey of India	Calcutta

SCIENTIFIC MEASURES

AMPERE:
Unit of electric current. It is approximately equal to the flow of 6 x 1018 electrons per second.

ATOMIC WEIGHT:
The weight of an atom of hydrogen is taken as the standard; the respective weights of the atoms of all other substances are expressed in terms of it. So when it is stated that the atomic weight of iron is 56, it is meant that the atom of iron is 56 times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen.

ANGSTROM:
The unit of wavelength of light is Angstrom. 1 Angstrom = 10-8 cm. There is a bigger unit for measuring the wavelength of infrared light; it is called a milli-micron and is equal to 10-7 cm. Micron =10-4 cm, is a still bigger unit. Bar is the unit of atmospheric pressure; one bar is equal to a pressure of 106 dynes per sq cm.

CALORY
Calory is the unit of heat. It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature or one gram of water through 1 C.

HORSE POWER:
The practical unit of power - the power of an agent which can work at the rate of 550 foot-pounds per second or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 1 HP=746 watts.

JOULE
Joule is the unit of work or energy. It is equal to 107 ergs. It is the energy consumed in one second in an electrical circuit through which a current energy of one ampere is flowing against a potential difference of one volt.

KNOT
Knot is a measure to know the speed of a ship.

LIGHT YEAR:
A light year is the distance light travels in one mean solar year, at speed of 1, 86,000 miles per second. It is equal to 5,880,000,000,000 miles. It is used as a unit for measuring stellar distances.

NAUTICAL MILE:
A unit of distance used in navigation - one minute of longitude measured along the Equator. A Nautical Mile is approximately equal to 6, 080 feet.

PRESSURE:
The pressure is expressed in pounds weight per sq cm. The pressure of the atmosphere is expressed in millibars. One millibar = 1 dyne per sq cm. If the pressure are very high, they are expressed in multiples of atmospheric pressure. 1 atmosphere is a pressure exerted by a column of mercury 76 cm high at sea level and at a latitude of 45 .

QUINTAL:
Metric measure of weight; 100 kilograms = 1 quintal.

VOLT:
The unit of potential difference. It is that much potential difference which when applied to the ends of an electrical conductor of resistance one ohm, the amount of energy consumed in the circuit in one second is one Joule (=107 ergs).

WATT:
Unit of power - the rate of work done in joules per second; the energy expended per second by an unvarying electric current of 1 ampere.

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES

Altimeter is a special type of aneroid barometer, used in measuring altitudes.

Ammeter is an instrument to measure the strength of an electric current.

Anemometer is an instrument to measure the velocity and find the direction of the wind.

Audiometer is an instrument to measure difference in hearing.

Barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.

Binocular is an optical instrument designed for magnified view of distant objects by both eyes simultaneously.

Calorimeter is an instrument for measuring quantities of heat.

Chronometer is a clock to determine longitude of a vessel of sea.

Clinical Thermometer is a thermometer for measuring the temperature of human body.

Calorimeter is an instrument for comparing intensities of colour.

Commutator is an instrument to change of reverse the direction of an electric current. In dynamo used to convert the alternating current into direct current.

Computer is a technical device designed to find instantaneous solutions of huge and complex calculation based on the information already fed.

Dynamo is a device for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Electroscope is an instrument for detecting the presence of electric charge.

Galvanometer is an instrument for measuring electric current.

Hydrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of liquids.

Hydrophone is an instrument for measuring sound under water.

Hygrometer is an instrument for measuring the relative humidity of the atmosphere.

Hygroscope is an instrument to show the changes in atmospheric humidity.

Lactometer is an instrument for measuring the relative density of milk.

Micrometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring small distances or angles.

Manometer is instrument to measure the pressure of gases.

Magnetometer is an instrument used to compare the magnetic moments and fields,

Mariner's Compass is an apparatus for determining direction, graduated to indicate 33 directions. The "N" point on the dial indicates north pole and the "S" point, south pole.

Microscope is an instrument for magnified view of very small objects.

Periscope is an apparatus for viewing objects lying above the eye level of the observer and whose direct vision is obstructed. It consists of a tube bent twice at right angles and having plane mirrors at these bends inclined at angles of 45 to the tube.

Photometer is an instrument for comparing the luminous intensity of the sources of light.

Planimeter is a mechanical integrating instrument to measure area of a plane surface.

Pyknometer is an instrument used to measure the density and co-efficient of expansion of liquid.

Pyrheliometer is an instrument for measuring solar radiations.

Pyrometers are thermometers to measure high temperatures.

Quadrant is an instrument for measuring altitudes and angles in navigation and astronomy.

Quartz clock is a highly accurate clock used in astronomical observations and other precision work.

Radio micrometer is an instrument for measuring heat radiations.

Rain gauge is an instrument for measuring rainfall.

Refractometer is an instrument used to measure the refractive index of a substance.

Resistance thermometer is used for determining the electrical resistance of conductor.

Salinometer is a type of hydrometer used to determine the concentration of salt solutions by measuring their densities.

Seismograph is an instrument used for recording the intensity and origin of earthquake shocks.

Sextant is an instrument used for measurement of angular distances between two objects.

Spectroscope is an instrument used for spectrum analysis.

Spectrometer is a type of spectroscope so calibrated as to make it suitable for the precise measurement of refractive indices.

Spherometer is an instrument used for accurately measuring the curvature of spherical objects.

Sphygmomanometer is an apparatus for measuring blood pressure.

Spring balance is used to measure the mass of a body. It is preferred only when quick but approximate determinations are to be carried out.

Stereoscope is an optical device to see two dimensional pictures as having depth and solidity.

Stethoscope is a medical instrument for hearing and analyzing the sound of heart and lungs.

Stroboscope is an instrument used for viewing the objects moving rapidly with a periodic motion and to see them as if they were at rest.

Tangent galvanometer is an instrument for measuring the strength of direct current.

Telemeter is an apparatus for recording physical events happening at a distance.

Teleprinter is a communication medium for automatic sending, receiving and printing of telegraphic message from distant places.

Telescope is an instrument for viewing distant objects as magnified.

Television is an instrument used for transmitting the visible moving images by means of wireless waves.

Thermometer is an instrument to measure the temperature.

Thermoscope is used for measuring the temperature change (approximately) of the substances by nothing the corresponding change in volume.

Thermostat is an automatic device for regulating constant tempera-tures.

Transistor is a small device which may be used to amplify currents and perform other functions usually performed by a thermionic value.

Vernier is an adjustable scale with marking of 10 sub-divisions of one-tenth of an inch or any other suitable marking for measuring small sub-divisions of scale.

Viscometer is an instrument for measuring the viscosity, i.e. the property of resistance of a fluid to relative motion within itself.

Voltmeter is an instrument to measure potential difference between two points.

Geographical Terms

ANTIPODES	A region or place on the opposite side of a point on the earth.
ANTICYCLONES	Winds which blow outward from the center.
APHELION	Position of the earth in its orbit when is at the maximum distance from the sun.
ARCHIPELAGO	A cluster of islands, e.g., Pearl Islands in the Gulf of Panama.
ATOLL	Coral reef resembling a horse shoe, enclosing a lagoon.
AXIS	An imaginary line joining north and south poles.
AVALANCHE	A vast mass of snow mixed with earth or stones.
BIOSPHERE	Animate or inanimate organic kingdom on earth.
CANYON	A deep valley cut by a river through a mountain region, e,g., the Grand Canyon of the Colarado river in the USA.
CONTINENTAL SHELF	Land adjoining a continent submerged in the sea.
CYCLONES	A low pressure system area in which the wind blows spirally inward.
CROP ROTATION	Growing different crops needing different minerals for their growth in the same piece of land in order to get more yield.
DATE LINE	An imaginary line pointing north-south approximating to the Meridian 180 (east or west) where the date changes by one day the moment it is crossed.
DELTA	Alluvial deposit shaped like Greek letter, formed at the mouth of the river, where it falls into the sea, e.g., the Sunderban delta.
DEW	Condensed atmospheric water vapours due to the cooling of the air.
DRY FARMING	Growing of crops in low rainfall areas by moisture conservation, crop rotation but without irrigation.
EQUATOR	An imaginary line dividing the earth into two equal parts.
EQUINOXES	The day on which nights and days are of equal duration, e.g., March 22 and September 23.
EROSION	Wearing away of the earth's land surface by rain, wind, water, etc. rendering the land infertile.
ECLIPSE	When one earthly body obscures another one partially or completely.
FOG	When the atmospheric moisture touches cold earth and condenses on dust particles.
FROST	When the atmospheric moisture deposits in the shape of icy flakes on the exposed objects or near the ground due to below freezing point temperature.
HIGH SEAS	The parts of the sea which do not come under the territorial jurisdiction of the nations.
ICEBERG	Huge mass of ice separated from glacier in the polar regions. These masses of ice float in the oceans with 9 parts submerged in the ocean and one part visible.
ISOBARS	Lines on the map connecting the places of the same pressure.
ISOTHERMS	Lines on the map joining the places of the same temperature.
ISTHMUS	Narrow neck of land joining two land areas.
KUNDAN	Anew variety of wheat which gives high yields in both rained and irrigated tracts and responds well to low dose of water and fertiliser.
LAGOON	A shallow stream of water at the mouth of a river enclosed bu dunes of river silt.
LIGHT YEAR	The distance traveled by light in one year. It is equal to 9.4*10612 km.
LOCAL TIME	Time calculated from the sun at noon at any place of earth.
MERIDIAN	Imaginary line joining north and south poles and cutting the equator at right angles.
MIST	It is just like fog but contain more moisture.
OASIS	A part of the desert where water and vegetation are found.
ORBIT	The path of the heavenly bodies.
PYGMALLION POINT	The southernmost point of India, 700 km away from mainland India.
PRAIRIES	Smooth, treeless, green plain of Central and North America.
REEF	Jutting of rock or shingle or sand at just above or below sea level.
SAVANNA	Land covered with natural grass.
SIDEREAL DAY	Time taken by the earth to rotate once round its axis.
SNOW LINE	Altitudinal line along which the area remains snow clad.
SPRING TIDES	Higher tides in the ocean caused by the sun and the moon together. When the sun, the earth and the moon are positioned in a straight line.
NEAP TIDES	Tides caused by the differences of the forces exerted by the moon and the sun when both are at right angles to each other.
TORNADO	A brisk and violent storm generally having rotator motion.
TUNDRAS	Peripheral area of Arctic ocean.
TYCOON	Violent hurricane in China Sea.
WEATHER SATELLITE	Artificial satellite designed to forecast weather.
WESTERLIES	Constant winds blowing from south-west in the northern hemisphere and north-west in south hemisphere.

Aircraft ID Mark

Afghanistan	YA
Algeria	7T
Argentina	LQ, LV
Australia	OE
Bangladesh	S2
Belgium	OO
Bolivia	CP
Brazil	PP, PT
Cameroon	TJ
Canada	C, CF
Chile	CC
China	B
Colombia	HK
Cuba	CU
Denmark	OY
Egypt	SU
Ethiopia	ET
Finland	OH
France	F
Germany	D
Greece	SX
India	VT
Indonesia	PK
Iran	EP
Iraq	YI
Israel	4X
Italy	I
Japan	JA
Kuwait	9K
Malaysia	9M
Netherlands	PH
Pakistan	AP
Saudi Arabia	HZ
Singapore	9V
South Africa	ZS, ZT, ZU
Spain	EC
Sri Lanka	4R
UK	G
USA	N
Venezuela	YV
Vietnam	VN
Yugoslavia	YU
Zaire	9Q, 9T
Zimbabwe	Z